Biopolym. Cell. 2001; 17(6):467-486.
Discussions
Viruses evolution – an attempt of non-linear prognosis
1Kordyum V. A.
  1. Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, NAS of Ukraine
    150, Akademika Zabolotnoho Str., Kyiv, Ukraine, 03680

Abstract

The non-traditional ideas about the possible evolution of the infections (mainly, viral), and its mechanisms are discussed and analysed in the review. The formation of Noosphere as a self-sufficient system, alternative to Biosphere caused the explosive (as for the scope and the rate) viral evolution. The discrepancy between the rate of viral variability and the rise of new infections is noted which suggests the «indefinition of infections». The acceleration and direction of the evolution of the infections (mainly, viral) a forecasted. The condition about the «ranges» of the infections' evolution is proved and the criteria for such «ranges» are formulated. The beginning of pure Noosphere contribution into the evolution of the infections is noted.

References

[1] Kordyum VA. About a conception of viruses and their place in the biosphere. Biopolym Cell. 2000; 16(2):87-98.
[2] Kistemann T, Exner M. Bedrohung durch Infektionskrankheiten? Dtsch Arztebl. 2000; 97(5):197-201.
[3] Kellam P. Molecular identification of novel viruses. Trends Microbiol. 1998;6(4):160-5.
[4] Micoud M. Histoire des h?patites au cours du xxe si?cle. Med Mal Infect. 2000;30:S5–S7.
[5] Stauber R. [Epidemiology and transmission of hepatitic C]. Wien Med Wochenschr. 2000;150(23-24):460-2.
[6] Laurent A. Hepatite C: l'Epidemie silencieuse traquee. Usine nouv. 1999; Hors Ser:34-5.
[7] Hepatitis C. Shedding light on the shadow epidemic. Harv Health Lett. 1999;24(9):1-3.
[8] Heinsen A, Fomsgaard A. [Hepatitis G virus or hepatitis GB virus C]. Ugeskr Laeger. 1999;161(18):2653-6.
[9] Kao JH, Chen W, Hsiang SC, Chen PJ, Lai MY, Chen DS. Prevalence and implication of TT virus infection: minimal role in patients with non-A-E hepatitis in Taiwan. J Med Virol. 1999;59(3):307-12.
[10] Huang YH, Wu JC, Lin CC, Sheng WY, Lee PC, Wang YJ, Chang FY, Lee SD. Prevalence and risk factor analysis of TTV infection in prostitutes. J Med Virol. 2000;60(4):393-5.
[11] Menz AM, Eggers HJ. Die neuen herpesviren HHV6, HHV7, HHV8 und ihre Krankheitsbilder. H + G. 1998; 73(4):200-6.
[12] PatUSA 5858374, MPK6 A61K 39/21, A61K 39/12//N 484944. Purified AIDS-associated virus.J. A. Lavy: University of California. Claimed. 07.06.95; Publ. 12.01.1999; NPK 424/208.1.
[13] Georges AJ, Baize S, Leroy EM, Geogrges-Courbot MC. Virus Ebola: L'essentiel pour le praticien. Med trop. 1998; 58(2):177-86.
[14] Yamashita T, Sakae K, Tsuzuki H, Suzuki Y, Ishikawa N, Takeda N, Miyamura T, Yamazaki S. Complete nucleotide sequence and genetic organization of Aichi virus, a distinct member of the Picornaviridae associated with acute gastroenteritis in humans. J Virol. 1998;72(10):8408-12.
[15] Chua KB, Goh KJ, Wong KT, Kamarulzaman A, Tan PS, Ksiazek TG, Zaki SR, Paul G, Lam SK, Tan CT. Fatal encephalitis due to Nipah virus among pig-farmers in Malaysia. Lancet. 1999;354(9186):1257-9.
[16] Gibbs WW. Trailing a virus. Sci Am. 1999;281(2):80-7.
[17] Quinet B. Les hypoth?ses ?tiologiques non toxiniques de la maladie ke Kawasaki. Med Mal Infect. 1998;28(6-7):560–3.
[18] Griffin G, Krishna S. Infectious diseases. J Roy Coll Phys. London. 1998; 32(4):306-9.
[19] Kordyum VA. Evolution and the Biosphere. Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 1982. 264 p.
[20] Anderson I. Is it too late to halt the world's amphibian plagues?. New Sci. 1998; 159(2144):21.
[21] Guillaume M. Le tueur de corail identife. Biofutur. 1998;179: 6-7.
[22] Balter M. Virus from 1959 sample marks early years of HIV. Science. 1998;279(5352):801.
[23] Christensen D. AIDS virus jumped from chimps. Sci News. 1999; 155(6):84.
[24] Gao F, Bailes E, Robertson DL, Chen Y, Rodenburg CM, Michael SF, Cummins LB, Arthur LO, Peeters M, Shaw GM, Sharp PM, Hahn BH. Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature. 1999;397(6718):436-41.
[25] Korber RT, Sharp PM, Ho DD. Dating the origin of HIV-1 subtypes. Nature. 1999; 400(6742):325-6.
[26] Blasutti F. Sida: Echec de la cooperation? III. SIDA (savoir, inf, debat, anal). 1999;115: 26-9.
[27] Savey M. L'encephalopathie bovine spongiforms en Europe et en France. De la maladie animale au risque en sante publique. Rev Palais decouv. 1998; 27(263):25-34.
[28] Gavaghan H. ESB: Accueil mitige de la levee de l'embargo. Biofutur. 1999; 192: 9.
[29] Dormont D. New variant of Creutzfeldt Jakob disease. Euro Surveill. 2000;5(9):95-97.
[30] F?zi M. Is the pathogen of prion disease a microbial protein? Med Hypotheses. 1999;53(2):91-102.
[31] Pat USA 6033858, MPK 7 C12Q 1/68/ N 09/050585. Detection of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. F. O. Bastian. Claimed. 30.03.98; Publ. 07.03.00; NPK 435/6.
[32] Brown P, Rau EH, Johnson BK, Bacote AE, Gibbs CJ Jr, Gajdusek DC. New studies on the heat resistance of hamster-adapted scrapie agent: threshold survival after ashing at 600 degrees C suggests an inorganic template of replication. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000;97(7):3418-21.
[33] Inchauspe G. R?ponses et m?canismes immunitaires li?s aux infections par le virus de l'h?patite C. Med malad infec. 2000; 30(Suppl. 1):S21-6.
[34] Zhelezova GZ, Karaivanova LA. GB virus C/hepatitis G virus--- is it a novel human 'hepatitis' virus? Clin Microbiol Infect. 1998;4(12):677-681.
[35] Okamoto H, Kato N, Iizuka H, Tsuda F, Miyakawa Y, Mayumi M. Distinct genotypes of a nonenveloped DNA virus associated with posttransfusion non-A to G hepatitis (TT virus) in plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Med Virol. 1999;57(3):252-8.
[36] Altschuler EL. Is JC polyoma virus the cause of ulcerative colitis and multiple sclerosis? Med Hypotheses. 2000;55(4):335-6.
[37] HIV joints the superbug set. New Sci. 1998; 159(2141): 24.
[38] Negroni M, Buc H. Copy-choice recombination by reverse transcriptases: reshuffling of genetic markers mediated by RNA chaperones. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000;97(12):6385-90.
[39] McCutchan FE, Carr JK, Bajani M, Sanders-Buell E, Harry TO, Stoeckli TC, Robbins KE, Gashau W, Nasidi A, Janssens W, Kalish ML. Subtype G and multiple forms of A/G intersubtype recombinant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in Nigeria. Virology. 1999;254(2):226-34.
[40] Peeters M. Recombinant HIV sequences: Their role in the global epidemic. HIV Mol Immunol. Eds B. T. M. Korber et al. Los Alamos, 2000: 39-54.
[41] Worobey M, Holmes EC. Evolutionary aspects of recombination in RNA viruses. J Gen Virol. 1999;80 ( Pt 10):2535-43.
[42] Herrewegh AA, Smeenk I, Horzinek MC, Rottier PJ, de Groot RJ. Feline coronavirus type II strains 79-1683 and 79-1146 originate from a double recombination between feline coronavirus type I and canine coronavirus. J Virol. 1998;72(5):4508-14.
[43] Sanchez A, Trappier SG, Str?her U, Nichol ST, Bowen MD, Feldmann H. Variation in the glycoprotein and VP35 genes of Marburg virus strains. Virology. 1998;240(1):138-46.
[44] Wyatt CA, Andrus L, Brotman B, Huang F, Lee DH, Prince AM. Immunity in chimpanzees chronically infected with hepatitis C virus: role of minor quasispecies in reinfection. J Virol. 1998;72(3):1725-30.
[45] Gim?nez-Barcons M, Ib??ez A, Tajahuerce A, S?nchez-Tapias JM, Rod?s J, Mart?nez MA, Saiz JC. Genetic evolution of hepatitis G virus in chronically infected individual patients. J Gen Virol. 1998;79 ( Pt 11):2623-9.
[46] Z??iga J, Vargas-Alarc?n G, Salgado N, Flores C, Mart?nez-Tripp S, Miranda A, Balbuena A, Osnaya N, Ju?rez F, Granados J, Reyes-Ter?n G. [Genetic determinant factors of resistance to HIV infection and of control of progression to AIDS: implications on pathogenesis and therapeutic approaches for the eradication of HIV. A review]. Rev Invest Clin. 2000;52(3):284-95.
[47] Lusso P, di Marzo Veronese F, Ensoli B, Franchini G, Jemma C, DeRocco SE, Kalyanaraman VS, Gallo RC. Expanded HIV-1 cellular tropism by phenotypic mixing with murine endogenous retroviruses. Science. 1990;247(4944):848-52.
[48] Caidan S. A new containment level 4 facility for 1918 influenza virus work: Abstr. Congr. of the Inst, of Biomed. Sci. (IBMS) (Birmingham, 1999). Br J Biomed Sci. 2000; 57(1): 100.
[49] Reid AH, Fanning TG, Janczewski TA, Taubenberger JK. Characterization of the 1918 "Spanish" influenza virus neuraminidase gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000;97(12):6785-90.
[50] Goto H, Kawaoka Y. A novel mechanism for the acquisition of virulence by a human influenza A virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998;95(17):10224-8.
[51] Barclay WS. Influenza A H5N1: The Hong Kong outbreak: Abstr. Congr. of the Inst, of Biomed. Sci. (IBMS) (Birmingham, 1999). Br J Biomed Sci. 2000; 57(1): 99.
[52] Dhumeaux D. Acquis et perspectives-hepatites virales. Med chir dig. 1997; 25(8):343-4.
[53] Yuasa R, Takahashi K, Dien BV, Binh NH, Morishita T, Sato K, Yamamoto N, Isomura S, Yoshioka K, Ishikawa T, Mishiro S, Kakumu S. Properties of hepatitis B virus genome recovered from Vietnamese patients with fulminant hepatitis in comparison with those of acute hepatitis. J Med Virol. 2000;61(1):23-8.
[54] Escarm?s C, D?vila M, Domingo E. Multiple molecular pathways for fitness recovery of an RNA virus debilitated by operation of Muller's ratchet. J Mol Biol. 1999;285(2):495-505.
[55] Johnston M. Preventing the plague. Chem Brit. 1999;35(6): 36-40.
[56] Tsukahara M, Tsuneoka H, Goto M, Iwamoto A. Seroprevalence of Bartonella henselae among HIV-1 infected patients in Japan. Kansenshogaku Zasshi. 1999;73(12):1241-2.
[57] Piesen Y. Tuberculose dans le monde; Donnees epidemiologiques. Concours med. 1998; 120(23): 1634.
[58] Danilevskiy NF, Borisenko AV, Nesin AF, Rakhniy ZhI. Manifestations of AIDS in the oral mucosa. Zh Prakt Likar. 1999; (1): 8-10.
[59] Novitsky VA, Montano MA, McLane MF, Renjifo B, Vannberg F, Foley BT, Ndung'u TP, Rahman M, Makhema MJ, Marlink R, Essex M. Molecular cloning and phylogenetic analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype C: a set of 23 full-length clones from Botswana. J Virol. 1999;73(5):4427-32.
[60] Kordyum VA. The peculiarities of AIDS distribution in Ukraine and the premise for a new step in its evolution. Biopolym Cell. 1999; 15(3):179-194.
[61] B?lec L, Si Mohamed A, M?ller-Trutwin MC, Gilquin J, Gutmann L, Safar M, Barr?-Sinoussi F, Kazatchkine MD. Genetically related human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in three adults of a family with no identified risk factor for intrafamilial transmission. J Virol. 1998;72(7):5831-9.
[62] Polomeni P. Usages de drogues: Sombre Europe de l'Est: 12e Congr. Int. SIDA 'Reduire ecart' (Geneve, 28 juin-3 juill, 1998). J. SIDA (savoir, inf., debat, anal.). 1998; Num. special: 56-57.
[63] Sebti A, Kiehn TE, Stiles JJ, Sepkowitz KS. Invasive CMV in cancer patients without previously established risk factors: A 3-year retrospective study as MSKCC: Abtsr Annu IDSA Meet Clin Infec Dis. 1999; 29(4): 1081.
[64] Timofeev IV, Perminova NG, Paletskaya TF. he herpes virus type-7-new representative human herpesviruses. Biotekhnologiia. 1999; (1): 44-7.
[65] Risi GF, Tomascak V. Prevention of infection in the immunocompromised host. Am J Infect Control. 1998;26(6):594-604.
[66] Ignatova TM, Aprosina ZG, Serov VV, Mukhin NA, Krel' PE, Semenkova EN, Popova IV, Tanashchuk EL. [Extrahepatic manifestations of chronic hepatitis C]. Ter Arkh. 1998;70(11):9-16.
[67] Kordyum VA. Problem of tumor origin as it is from the molecular genetics point of view. Biopolym Cell. 2001; 17(2):109-39.
[68] Minemoto Y, Shimura M, Ishizaka Y, Masamune Y, Yamashita K. Multiple centrosome formation induced by the expression of Vpr gene of human immunodeficiency virus. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999;258(2):379-84.
[69] Vijaya Lakshmi AN, Ramana MV, Vijayashree B, Ahuja YR, Sharma G. Detection of influenza virus induced DNA damage by comet assay. Mutat Res. 1999;442(1):53-8.
[70] Wadman M. US urged to monitor some genetic tests. Nature. 1997;385(6616):477.
[71] Rizzo P, Di Resta I, Powers A, Ratner H, Carbone M. Unique strains of SV40 in commercial poliovaccines from 1955 not readily identifiable with current testing for SV40 infection. Cancer Res. 1999;59(24):6103-8.
[72] Katti MK, Sathyajith VK, Shanmugham J. Emergence of multiresistant bacterial pathogens--isolated from endotracheal aspirates. J Commun Dis. 1999;31(1):57-9.
[73] Karchmer AW. Nosocomial bloodstream infections: organisms, risk factors, and implications. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31 Suppl 4:S139-43.
[74] Padgett DA, Sheridan JF, Dorne J, Berntson GG, Candelora J, Glaser R. Social stress and the reactivation of latent herpes simplex virus type 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998;95(12):7231-5.
[75] Belyaeva TV. The infections role in human pathology. Uchn zapiski SPbGMU. 2000; 7(1):7-10.
[76] Delecluse HJ, Hilsendegen T, Pich D, Zeidler R, Hammerschmidt W. Propagation and recovery of intact, infectious Epstein-Barr virus from prokaryotic to human cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998;95(14):8245-50.
[77] Jackson GS, Hill AF, Joseph C, Hosszu L, Power A, Waltho JP, Clarke AR, Collinge J. Multiple folding pathways for heterologously expressed human prion protein. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1999;1431(1):1-13.
[78] Matsuda J, Suzuki M, Nozaki C, Shinya N, Tashiro K, Mizuno K, Uchinuno Y, Yamamura K. Transgenic mouse expressing a full-length hepatitis C virus cDNA. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1998;89(2):150-8.
[79] Leonard JM, Abramczuk JW, Pezen DS, Rutledge R, Belcher JH, Hakim F, Shearer G, Lamperth L, Travis W, Fredrickson T, et al. Development of disease and virus recovery in transgenic mice containing HIV proviral DNA. Science. 1988;242(4886):1665-70.
[80] Hanna Z, Kay DG, Cool M, Jothy S, Rebai N, Jolicoeur P. Transgenic mice expressing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in immune cells develop a severe AIDS-like disease. J Virol. 1998;72(1):121-32.